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Kerala has achieved greater feats in the realm of education. Many valorised the astounding contributions of Kerala. Surprisingly, foreigners are charmed by the picturesque beauty of the region, comforted by the warmth of their hospitality, and revered by their system of cultural assimilation. Let me pose a question why is Kerala perceived as a literate state? Could they have achieved in a matter of minutes? or as espoused by ancient astronaut theorists: were they descended from heaven? There are lots of questions that buzz you but you have to understand what Kerala was centuries ago. Let's chime into the historicity of Kerala. The status -quo of being a literate state is the culmination of sweeping cultural exchanges and transformations which has taken place right from the First century CE. Kerala in the first century was a small principality in Tamilakam; a vast geographical region covering the southern portion of the Indian peninsula. Perhaps it is known for its revering, grandiose and compelling poems of Sangam poets. The age in which they flourished is termed as "THE SANGAM AGE"We get to know glimpses of the socio-cultural and polity of Tamil Kingdoms. Kerala at that time comes under the sphere of influence of "THE CHERAS"One of the" MUVANDARS".It is pertinent to note that the Chera dynasty patronised bards and budding poets of the day. In the Sangam age, Kerala came to the fore for being adept in the realm of epistemology. Learning centres thrived in Kerala, especially in the southern fringe. Mathilakam which is situated by the ancient port city Muziris is held as an important centre of learning. Furthermore, scores of literateurs thrived in Mathilakam. Illango Adigal, the author of CILAPADHIKARAM, one of the canons of the Sangam literature was purported to be the resident of Mathilakam. Let's move on to the social scene in the Sangam age. Society was not stratified nor Brahminism was predominant. Vedar, Pannar and Parayar were predominant social classes in the ancient Tamil kingdom. They were well versed and intellectual as well. For instance, Pannar, who are Bards won acclaim for their captivating poems, They were venerated by the king. They would valorise the king and their military exploits. Pathetipattu informs us that Narmudicheran, the Chera King, granted the bard who goes by the name Kappiyannar granted him gold. This implies the privileges enjoyed by Pannars during the Sangam age. They had strengthened the edifice of Knowledge. It is worth noting that poets like Avayyar held high esteem in society. During the sixth century CE, Buddhism and Jainism flourished across Kerala. They were indeed the progenitors of modern schooling. They were the first who started schools by their viharas or shrines. They disseminated the knowledge of Ayurveda across Kerala. Consequently, treatises on Ayurveda viz; Charakasamhita and Ashtangahridaya were popularized. It is surprising to know that Ezhavas, relatively low caste served as Ayurvedic Practitioners.  In Eight-Hundred CE, Chera Empire bifurcated into two. A branch of the Chera Dynasty settled in a place called "Mahodayapuram" which is near to Kottayam, one of the districts in Kerala. They herald the new age of learning. In due course of time, Mahodayapuram became an acclaimed learning centre. Acclaimed literateurs including the King had their moorings in the realm of intellect and wisdom.Kulashekara Alwar, the ruler of Mahodayapuram penned "Mukundamala". Temples thrived and became the abode of learning. It is pertinent to note that Mahodayapuram was fortunate to have an observatory. It is perhaps one of the earliest observatories in South India. Intellectuals in Kerala developed a flair for Astronomy. Shankaranarayanan, an erudite scholar and exponential astronomer penned a treatise entitled "Shankaranarayaneeyam"  which is modelled on Bhaskara's "Lakhubhaskareeyam" On the arrival of Brahmins, Vedic studies nurtured and Sanskrit became the apex language to be studied. But education during the age could be perceived as ''stratified'' for education is the exclusive right of the Brahmins. A new kind of schooling system has emerged during this period. The shalas are meant to teach Vedic chants, grammar and theories. Pupils were advised to observe rules. Any violation may cause a penalty sometimes inmates are denied to consume meals. Education at Salas was carried with such rigour. Pannars and vedars, unlike their previous status, were denied schooling. Prominent sales were located in the southern part of Kerala, are viz; Kanthaloor, Parthivashekarapuram, Thiruvalla and Moozhikulam. Similarly, Sri Shankaracharya Of Kaladi, who espoused the notion of "ADWAITHA", set up Mutts or Abbeys, for learning theological matters. Under his aegis, Four Mutts were established in Kerala. They are Vadakku Madam(which lies in the North), Thekku Madam( Which lies in the south ), Naduvi Madam( which lies in the centre) and Eda Madam(The abbey which lies in between other Abbeys ) The prior of these Abbeys were his disciples. Besides these, there are scores of Abbeys in Thrissur district of Kerala viz; Chovanur and the Abbey in Thirunavaya. The Abbey at Kadavur had the repute of conducting entrance tests. The test is termed " MUKHYAM KADAKKAL" where every scholar are expected to take them. If they prove successful, they had the chance to study at the Abbey.  In the regnal years of Ravivarmakulashekharan(1299-1314), Kollam, located in the southern part of Kerala, had the repute of being an ace learning centre. Meanwhile, there are developments in the northern part of Kerala in the realm of literature. The Zamorins of Malabar and the AY Dynasty of the south patronised Luminaries and Scholars. The Zamorins of Malabar lends support to litterateurs to augment their literary production. Revathypattathanam is a kind of scholastic convention held under the auspicious of Zamorins. Eminent scholars across Kerala went in for the convention. On such occasion, series of hermeneutical debates were exchanged making the convention the medium of gleaning knowledge. On the concluding day of the convention, the King would confer the title "BHATTA" to the victor of the debate. Such practices enhance the intellectual capacity indeed. In this period, treatises on various subjects pop in. For instance, Shilparatna penned by Srikumaran Namboothiri is an example of the pensive treatise on sculptures. Let's chime into the developments in education in the modern period which starts from the fifteenth century. In this period, the Portuguese became a formidable force. The age witnessed the rise of European hegemony over the Indian sub-continent. It is pertinent to note that the Portuguese began the discipline of Orientalism. Orientalism is a branch of knowledge that focuses on Asian works, particularly Indian works, literature, scripts, culture, Indian religion, diet and geography probably, the Portuguese Christian missionaries are keen to learn Indian scripts with an intent to evangelize. They somehow codified the haphazard hermeneutical system of Kerala. The Jesuits(A congregation of Christian Monks, determined to restore Roman catholicism across the world) under the aegis of Portuguese monarchs worked assiduously to glean the Indian knowledge system. Johanne Gonsalves, a Spanish Jesuit introduced printing technology in India. They have established a printing press in Mattancherry and a college in Quilon(Present-day Kollam). St.Francis Xavier, a Jesuit priest translated the Holy Bible into Malayalam. Moreover, the works of Portuguese Scholar like Duarte Barbarossa need an honourable mention. The Dutch had a Lukewarm response to the development of education in Kerala but the works of Dutch luminaries like Newhoff and Baladais needs to be appreciated. The Dutch fostered oriental studies. Van Reed published a treatise on medicinal herbs in Kerala entitled  Hortus Malabaricus  circa 1678 in Amsterdam. It is pertinent to add Indian credits to the work as well. Konkani Brahmin Brothers Ranga Bhatt, Vinayaka Bhatt and Appu Bhatt along with Itty Achuthan, an Ayurvedic Practitioner assisted Reed. During this period several books were translated to vernacular language. At the turn of the Eighteenth Century, Christian missionaries were able to publish books on Malayalam grammar and Dictionary, For instance, A German Jesuit known by the mane of Arnos Pathiri(Johann Ernst Hanxleden) published a Malayalam dictionary and book on Malayalam grammar. He authored  Puthen pana , a poem that illustrates the life of Jesus Christ.  Sampshikthavedartham  is the first complete Malayalam text to be published. Another priest Paramakkal Thoma Kathanar penned  Varthamanapusthakam , which is considered to be the first travelogue published in Malayalam. The magnitude of actions by English and Prussians are commendable. Their endeavours are triumphant indeed. In the 1820s CMS  a congregation of protestant missionaries established a printing press in Kottayam. Benjamin Bailey, a pious rather selfless missionary came to the fore in this period. He strived to eradicate the social mores of society. His contribution deserves a penny or more than that. In 1846, he published Malayalam- English Dictionary. While Herman Gundert made his mark on reviving academia. Consequently, native scholars produced their literary works thereby enlarging the branch of orientalism. The works of Christian missionaries prompted the Travancore as well as the Cochin Kingdoms to set up a special committee for formulating textbooks. They happily provided monetary support to the schools and other sorts of learning centres. It is pertinent to note that English and European missionaries endeavoured to provide free education to the vulnerable segments of the society. The daring among such missionaries were Ringeltaube, a Prussian protestant missionary, who founded schools in the Nagercoil-Trivandrum region free of cost. Another venerated missionary was an English missionary who goes by the name of Dr Charles Meed presented vocational education for the first time. Under the aegis of the king of Cochin, Rev. J. Dassen established the first school in Mattancherry way back in 1818 whereas there is considerable improvement in education.Schools were established in Kallai(In the Kozhikode district of Kerala), Thalassery(In Kannur district of Kerala) in 1848 and 1856 respectively. These are the resultant of activities of Bassel missionaries. At the instance of Colonel Munro, an English resident in the Kingdom of Travancore,  Rani Parvathibhai set up  Malayalam medium schools across the kingdom. This was way back in 1817. The first English school in Travancore was founded during the regime of HH Swathi Thirunal. In 1845, the first English school was founded in Ernakulam(The Kingdom of Cochin). Under the patronage of Mr Brennan, the Bassel mission has to stare  Brennen school in 1862. Gradually the government adopted the school and elevated it to the status of the college. Now it is known by the name of Government Brennan College, which stands majestically on the coast of Malabar. In the latter half of the nineteenth century until the second half of the Twentieth century, Kerala witnessed a surge of Educational establishments. Technical and research institutes had been instituted. The law college located in Trivandrum was established in 1874 followed by Sanskrit college in 1889, Ayurvedic college in 1889, Medical college in 19551 agricultural and veterinary colleges in 1955. The Nineteenth and twentieth-century Kerala witnessed the growth of cultural and research institutes. The oriental institute was instituted by the government to preserve ancient manuscripts as well as the cache of antique documents. Sreechithira institute of the art gallery was set up in the regnal years of HH Sreechithira Thirunal way back in 1935. The period witnessed the advent of Gazettes and Manuals. They were largely popularized in the 1880s. William Logan published his eponymous Malabar manual. Followed by this is the Malabar district gazetteer published in 1908. several Governmental departments had released gazettes. During the nineteenth century, libraries were set up by the government. The Kingdom of Travancore had established its first library in 1829.The trend was followed in Kottayam and the Kingdom of Cochin. Moreover, people put up the need for a literary society where scholars and enthusiasts can hold debates, public heir finding and honing their magnificent artistic skill. The first to initiate such literary society is attributed to Kandathil Mammen Mapilla who started BHASHAPOSHINI under the patronization of Kerala Varma Valiya Kozhi Thampuran way back in 1892. Other literateurs on similar lines established literary societies viz;  SASTRASAHITYA PARISHAD, SAHITYA PRAVARTHAKA SAMITHI, KERALIYA EITHIHASIKA SAMITHI was now known by the name of Kerala Historical Society and so on. To augment scientific temperament, the government initiated Kerala sastra Sahitya Samithi( Kerala science and Literary Society ) . Countless books were published under the tutelage of  Kerala  Sastra Sahitya Samithi. The advent of newspapers essentially required honourable mention in the annals of history. Herman Gundert Publish the first newspapers in Kerala viz; Rajyasamacharam and Paschimodayam which were published in1847.By the 1860s scores of newspapers had been published viz; Paschim Tharika (1865), Keralam (1866), Kerala Pathaka (1870)and Kerala Mithra(1881). Kerala Mithram was published by a Gujarathi was known by the name of Devji Bhimji . Kerala Pathrika( 1884), Nasrani Deepika (1887), Malayala Manorama (1888), Mathrubhumi (1924), Kerala Kaumudi (1940) and Desabhimani were prominent newspapers in Kerala. In conclusion, Kerala has been an abode of knowledge since ancient ages. Its historicity, hermeneutical transitions and physiognomy made the place exquisite.

For a very long time, Ancient India had supreme importance in the intellectual matrix, for erudite scholars had espoused theories vividly on science and philosophy. India had been a harbinger of epistemology since Vedic times. One must cast doubt that her intellectual versatility precedes Vedic times but there is scant evidence on knowledge in the proto-Historic age. Nonetheless, the knowledge which has been conceived orally was put down in pen in the opening centuries of the Christian era. Right from the beginning of the Vedic epoch, religion and philosophy have had a profound impact on man and his actions. Venerable sages were at meditation that brings forth Innumerable wisdom on epistemology. We are rather astonished at how the knowledge system had transformed into a religion. We must bear in mind that, everything including history has transitioned from simple to complex. When religions founded on scientific philosophies ushered in, rulers, wealthy merchants and local chieftains take up to propagate them, some of them drifted away from pure knowledge but on the other hand, secular knowledge made inroads to the basic tenets and produced astounding feats in epistemology. Likewise, Nalanda University is the manifestation of changes that happened in the structure of philosophy. Buddhism, especially, Mahayana Buddhism flourished on the support of kings. The Mahayana sect had produced a copious amount of literature which enriched the academic syllabus of the University. A university exists in the literature. Here literature implies treatises on various branches of knowledge. Before we dive into the history of Nalanda, it is pertinent to understand what we meant by the term university in the early medieval age. Firstly, it is important to fully understand the context in which the term university is used. This brings us to the work of Cardinal John Henry Newman(1801-1890), an English Cleric, who had produced a treatise on how a University ought to be. He perceived University as the manifestation of morality. The chief purpose of such an institution is to cultivate good habits and should have a profound impact on the behaviour of the pupil. He weighs more on the primacy of religion. To define, a University is a body of scholastic people and hold out an invitation to the student who possesses requisite knowledge. Lastly, he asserted the importance of secular education as arts and science are stemmed from religion. It pervades over various disciplines of Knowledge. He adduced that theology, which is distinct from religion ought to be included in the curriculum as it is the science of God that places reason over emotion. Nalanda befits aforesaid qualities. It is chiefly philosophical at a certain point of time and in due course of time religious. On the strength of Cardinal Newman's proposition, we can infer that Nalanda University is entrenched in Religion, the primacy of theology and so forth. It is imperative to mention that the existence of multifarious subjects makes a learning Centre a University. Origin &Etymology Nalanda, once considered as the abode of learning, is located in present-day Bihar, one of the states in India. Several accounts give us information on the etymology of the place. In this regard, Hiuen -Tsiang, a Chinese traveller and a student of Jayadeva, the Pandit at Nalanda University. He stated that Nalanda had been named after a snake who dwelt in the tank by the Mango grove. Conversely, another account subscribes to the fact that Nalanda is derived from the word "Na-Alam-datum" which signifies: It is sufficient to give. This account is attributed to the benevolence of King Thattagatha. Another account testifies wrath and impending havoc wrought by intruders. It describes that king Sakraditya purported to be Kumaragupta, a Gupta King, built a monastery but unknowingly wounded the snake that goes by the name Nalanda. Harming a serpent is considered an omen. The soothsayer prophesied that the place will flourish as a Learning Centre for a thousand years but it will be destroyed at the hands of Intruders. We are not sure whether these statements are valid or not. Ostensibly, the etymology and origin of Nalanda are shrouded in mystery. From Sangharama to the University It is pertinent to note that the evolution of Nalanda as the University should be understood in the Buddhist matrix. It is quite certain that Nalanda University has been evolved from the Sangharama or Monastery. Sangharama, in Sanskrit, literally means Resting place. The idea of monachism predates the lifetime of Gautama Buddha. It is derived from Hinduism as sage denounced their worldly life and turned to spirituality. At the nascent stage of Buddhism, Lord Buddhism never encouraged his followers to lodge somewhere as they were pessimistic about life. They wander from place to place. Sometimes they dwelt at the foot of the tree, on hillsides or in the forest. They embraced monachism for the sole purpose of the attainment of nirvana. They might have been inspired by the Thittya School of Monachism. The Buddhist Mendicants during the monsoon sought refuge in caves or abodes of wealthy merchants. Their stay during the monsoon is called 'Vassa'. There is a legend associated with vassa. During the monsoon, Boddhisatvs(Buddhist monks) roamed across the region in search of food, they plucked small plants and disrupted small creatures. This was a heinous crime and violated one of the cardinal tenets of Buddhism. Lord Buddha, worried about their actions, instructed them to stay during the monsoon. Hence began vassa. During Vassa, they lived in the cave or resorted to Hospice sponsored by the king or wealthy merchants. Gradually their temporary residence had been evolved into Viharas, where they meditate, chant dhamma and attain Nirvana. The chief purpose of Viharas, As Lord Buddha puts it: " To give Viharas to the Sangha(Association of Buddhist Monks), where, in safety and in peace , to meditate and think at ease, they are the best of gifts" As to the sponsor he says: "Let then, the able man, regarding his own weal, have pleasant monasteries built, and lodge their learned men" Mahavagga and Cullavagga ( Buddhist texts) refer to the splendour of Buddhist Viharas. They have all sorts of paraphernalia: Verandah covered terrace, inner verandah, embellished with furniture, chair, mat and stool. Walls of viharas were made of brick, stone and cement. Sometimes learned men stay at Viharas. We can presume that it is from the secular knowledge that emerged At Viharas, the monk had to perform certain functions. They met on specific days of the month to recite dhammas. They performed uposatha ceremonies where they purify themselves. Moreover, they assembled at the monastery to admit guilt. Gradually, there arises the need for a person who presides these ceremonies so, the fraternity elected one of the members as the president. The official acts termed as 'Sanghakamma' were carried out with the help of four monks. As mentioned earlier, the surge of secular education changed the fundamental principles of Buddhism. The revival of Buddhism had transformed viharas into learning centres. It is worth noting to bear in mind that Nalanda University is the product of Mahayana Buddhism, for pandits like Silabhadra, Dharmapala and Jayadeva were considered to be patriarchs of Mahayana Buddhism. Chaityas were erected not only at Nalanda but sculpted rock-cut caves at Ellora, Kanheri and Ajantha. These were constructed with the help of the kings and wealthy merchants for their names were inscribed on the viharas. People from distant lands came to learn from ingenious priests or Monks. The students are referred to as Brahmacarins. Gradually, there is a drift like sangharamas. Now it's purely academic and the predominance of Nirvana and meditation withered away. Various disciplines of Epistemology were produced by the learned men of Mahayana Buddhism, they gave rise to various Schools and culminated in the formation of the University. Curriculum A University exists on how much epistemological literature had been produced. Students are attracted to education primarily on their affinity towards any system of knowledge. Thus it should be recorded to disseminate. Modern Universities produce pieces of literature for pecuniary needs. Modern students are into professions that demand wealth. By contrast, Students of the ancient age are intrigued by the ingenuity of a certain epistemological discipline. The Indian knowledge system is deeply entrenched in philosophy. The ancients are driven by an insatiable thirst for understanding the truth. Learned men, in their quest to find the truth, espoused various mediums to perceive it. Their intellectual pursuit is manifested in the form of logic, astronomy, exegetics, reasoning and so on. The intellectual mooring of Nalanda University falls back upon Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism had a sonorous impact on Indian epistemology. The Vedas, Vedantas, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaishesikas enriched the edifice of knowledge. They indeed influenced the Mahayana branch of Buddhism to a larger extent. For instance, Hindu Nyaya had given rise to Hetuvidya(The science of reasoning) in Buddhism. Several epistemological branches come under Hindu tradition. Hasmukh Dirajlal Sankalia(1908-1989), an Indian Historian and a celebrated Archaeologist identified major landmarks in Indian epistemology. The age of Panini and The age of Mahayana Buddhism. The former precedes the time of Buddha. Various knowledge systems that flourished in the lifetime of Panini can be subsumed under the head of the Hindu tradition. Let's chime in on the various knowledge systems before Gautama Buddha. Panini, also known as Ahita Panini is a venerable grammarian who lived in the seventh century BC, his incredible niche in classical languages and logic contributed to a treatise entitled Ashtadhyayi( Eight chapters), probably the first book on grammar. In the seventh century before Christ Vedas, Vedangas viz; Jyothisa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Kalpa and Siksha; and twenty-six epistemological systems including Kshatra-vidya(The science of Bow) and vakovakyam(The science of disputation) were studied. They were predominant during Gautama Buddha's lifetime. Besides them, Nyaya, Vaishesikas and Samkhya deserve mention. Samkhya was espoused by Kapila as a scientific investigation on the creation and origin of the universe. The Universe owes its origin to the Prakriti. Prakriti signifies nature. In the beginning, nature was static so was its elements viz; Thamas(The matter), Rajas(Energy) and Sattva(Energy). At a certain point in time, three elements became unstable, change happened in them. Every life form happens due to the combination of these elements. He recognized the existence of spirit( Purusha) which is different in every individual. This brings us to the notion of duality. This had a profound impact on the principles of Shri Shankaracharya even though he assailed it and It had a deep impact on Buddhism as well. Another essential theory of knowledge is Logic. It is postulated by Gotama or widely known by the name Aksapada. It seeks to identify the truth based on the argument of the premise(statement) by the process of dialectics. If we make a statement in thought, it will be inference. Subsequently, by thoroughly validating the inference and argument of a statement conclusion is arrived at. This is how logic is expounded. In due course of time, the Logic was subject to change. In Buddhist epistemology, logic was more technical rather than religious. Dinnaga, the greatest Buddhist logician gives more importance to the Hetu or linga also known as the Middle part of an Inference. He has produced countless treatises on logic which attracted students and elders alike. Similarly, Vaishesikas is on equal foot with Samkhya and Nyaya. In antagonism with the Samkhya philosophy, vaishesikas laid out the proposition that all substance formed by the atom, which is indivisible, is put into motion by God. Moreover, it emphasizes reality as it advocates entities felt and experienced by humans, For instance, the sky, ether and fire are perceptible. It is well connected to Nyaya and therefore a combination of both is flourished in the medieval era by the name Nyaya-Vaishesikas . This theory is postulated by Kanada in the opening century of the Christian era. The Yoga philosophy, espoused by Kanada in the second century BC, is geared towards Theism, despite its affinity towards Nyaya. It seeks salvation in the end. Literally, Yoga in Sanskrit means 'Union' by samadhi. We are corrupted by the material world created by Prakriti, which is nature. Salvation is the ultimate path to reach the omnipotent therefore, yoga is the medium to get there. Despite the spiritual side, it teaches asanas or physical exercise and Pranayama which is breath control. These epistemological systems were taught at learning institutions before Gautama Buddha. They, indeed, had a profound impact on Mahayana Buddhism. As we get through the Buddhist epistemology, a lot of changes happened within Buddhist tenets. Let us have a rapid survey on this. Buddhism as a religion is apparently a far cry from the pure form of Buddhism. The pure form of Buddhism embraced self-denial and had a rather pessimistic outlook. The revival in Buddhism takes place in the early centuries of the Christian era. The emergence of Madhyamika Philosophy espoused by Nagarjuna gave rise to Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhism in the Christian era had been splintered into two, viz; The Mahayana and The Hinayana. The former stressed the significance of idealism, the resultant of which is the emergence of celestial Gods and Demons. It is darn ritualistic and embraced Sunyavada. While the latter subscribed to the idea of Puritanism and affirms individual salvation. Driven by the Hindu tradition, Buddhism in later stages produced innumerable works on Logic, Truth, Dialectics and so forth. It is worth noting to mention the patriarchs of Mahayana tradition, in this respect. Nagarjuna, the venerated Patriarch, penned the work entitled Dasa- bhumi-vibhasa- sastra wherein he refuted Brahmanical philosophy. Aryadeva, the celebrated student of Nagarjuna, had a scathing attack on Samkhya and Vaishesikas in his magnum opus, Satasastra(Some regards Nagarjuna as the Author of the text). Logic has a prominent place in Buddhist Philosophy. The real founders of medieval logic Buddhists. Dinnaga is considered to be the first systematic author of Buddhist logic. In Buddhism, cause or Hetu is of supreme importance. Dignaga had written a treatise on the importance of Hetu. Thus under the aegis of Mahayana Buddhism extant epistemological topics are revamped and they are taught at Nalanda University. It is important to have a survey on topics taught at Nalanda. The university had a wide array of subjects and studying them was exhaustive as well. Before he seeks admission to the university, he ought to be well adept in Vedas, Nyaya, Samkhya and other knowledge systems. Travelogues of Hiuen -Tsiang and I -Tsing informs us on the multidisciplinary curriculum at the University. The curriculum of Nalanda was exhaustive and embraced many of the subjects of pre-Nalanda times(Sankalia,1934 p.67). Of various subjects, certain topics deserve mention. They are compulsorily taught at the university. It has been already mentioned that Nalanda University embraced Mahayana Buddhism. In this ambit, it is pertinent to mention the significance of Theology. Theology is attributed to science for it is the scientific study of God. In western conception, the sole purpose of theology is to place reason above emotion. There is reason to believe in something. Likewise, Mahayana Buddhism professed the belief in Ideas and at the same time Nihilism. Hence, there are two cardinal tenets of Mahayana Buddhism viz; 'Sunyavada' and 'Vijanavada'. It is fascinating to understand that both schools refuted the existence of reality. As to Sunyavada, it denies the existence of an object for everything evolves, subject to change. This is espoused by Nagarjuna and hence regarded as the kernel element of the Mahayana. By contrast, Hinayana Buddhism, grappled with the notion of existence which is explained in philosophy called 'Sravakayana'. The latter(Vijanavada) teaches the significance of Idealism. These bring us to the teaching of Dharmapala, a venerated scholar at the Nalanda University. Dharmapala expounded on the theory of 'Sky-Flower'. The Sky- Flower conception is neither a Nihilist concept nor an idealist notion. The theory describes in the following manner: A University exists on how much epistemological literature had been produced. Students are attracted to education primarily on their affinity towards any system of knowledge. Thus it should be recorded to disseminate. Modern Universities produce pieces of literature for pecuniary needs. Modern students are into professions that demand wealth. By contrast, Students of the ancient age are intrigued by the ingenuity of a certain epistemological discipline. The Indian knowledge system is deeply entrenched in philosophy. The ancients are driven by an insatiable thirst for understanding the truth. Learned men, in their quest to find the truth, espoused various mediums to perceive it. Their intellectual pursuit is manifested in the form of logic, astronomy, exegetics, reasoning and so on. The intellectual mooring of Nalanda University falls back upon Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism had a sonorous impact on Indian epistemology. The Vedas, Vedantas, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaishesikas enriched the edifice of knowledge. They indeed influenced the Mahayana branch of Buddhism to a larger extent. For instance, Hindu Nyaya had given rise to Hetuvidya(The science of reasoning) in Buddhism. Several epistemological branches come under Hindu tradition. Hasmukh Dirajlal Sankalia(1908-1989), an Indian Historian and a celebrated Archaeologist identified major landmarks in Indian epistemology. The age of Panini and The age of Mahayana Buddhism. The former precedes the time of Buddha. Various knowledge systems that flourished in the lifetime of Panini can be subsumed under the head of the Hindu tradition. Let's chime in on the various knowledge systems before Gautama Buddha. Panini, also known as Ahita Panini is a venerable grammarian who lived in the seventh century BC, his incredible niche in classical languages and logic contributed to a treatise entitled Ashtadhyayi( Eight chapters), probably the first book on grammar. In the seventh century before Christ Vedas, Vedangas viz; Jyothisa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Kalpa and Siksha; and twenty-six epistemological systems including Kshatra-vidya(The science of Bow) and vakovakyam(The science of disputation) were studied. They were predominant during Gautama Buddha's lifetime. Besides them, Nyaya, Vaishesikas and Samkhya deserve mention. Samkhya was espoused by Kapila as a scientific investigation on the creation and origin of the universe. The Universe owes its origin to the Prakriti. Prakriti signifies nature. In the beginning, nature was static so was its elements viz; Thamas(The matter), Rajas(Energy) and Sattva(Energy). At a certain point in time, three elements became unstable, change happened in them. Every life form happens due to the combination of these elements. He recognized the existence of spirit( Purusha) which is different in every individual. This brings us to the notion of duality. This had a profound impact on the principles of Shri Shankaracharya even though he assailed it and It had a deep impact on Buddhism as well. Another essential theory of knowledge is Logic. It is postulated by Gotama or widely known by the name Aksapada. It seeks to identify the truth based on the argument of the premise(statement) by the process of dialectics. If we make a statement in thought, it will be inference. Subsequently, by thoroughly validating the inference and argument of a statement conclusion is arrived at. This is how logic is expounded. In due course of time, the Logic was subject to change. In Buddhist epistemology, logic was more technical rather than religious. Dinnaga, the greatest Buddhist logician gives more importance to the Hetu or Linga also known as the Middle part of an Inference. He has produced countless treatises on logic which attracted students and elders alike. Similarly, Vaishesikas is on equal foot with Samkhya and Nyaya. In antagonism with the Samkhya philosophy, vaishesikas laid out the proposition that all substance formed by the atom, which is indivisible, is put into motion by God. Moreover, it emphasizes reality as it advocates entities felt and experienced by humans, For instance, the sky, ether and fire are perceptible. It is well connected to Nyaya and therefore a combination of both is flourished in the medieval era by the name Nyaya-Vaishesikas. This theory is postulated by Kanada in the opening century of the Christian era. The Yoga philosophy, espoused by Kanada in the second century BC, is geared towards Theism, despite its affinity towards Nyaya. It seeks salvation in the end. Literally, Yoga in Sanskrit means 'Union' by samadhi. We are corrupted by the material world created by Prakriti, which is nature. Salvation is the ultimate path to reach the omnipotent therefore, yoga is the medium to get there. Despite the spiritual side, it teaches asanas or physical exercise and Pranayama which is breath control. These epistemological systems were taught at learning institutions before Gautama Buddha. They, indeed, had a profound impact on Mahayana Buddhism. As we get through the Buddhist epistemology, a lot of changes happened within Buddhist tenets. Let us have a rapid survey on this. Buddhism as a religion is apparently a far cry from the pure form of Buddhism. The pure form of Buddhism embraced self-denial and had a rather pessimistic outlook. The revival in Buddhism takes place in the early centuries of the Christian era. The emergence of Madhyamika Philosophy espoused by Nagarjuna gave rise to Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhism in the Christian era had been splintered into two, viz; The Mahayana and The Hinayana. The former stressed the significance of idealism, the resultant of which is the emergence of celestial Gods and Demons. It is darn ritualistic and embraced Sunyavada. While the latter subscribed to the idea of Puritanism and affirms individual salvation. Driven by the Hindu tradition, Buddhism in later stages produced innumerable works on Logic, Truth, Dialectics and so forth. It is worth noting to mention the patriarchs of Mahayana tradition, in this respect. Nagarjuna, the venerated Patriarch, penned the work entitled Dasa- bhumi-vibhasa- shastra wherein he refuted Brahmanical philosophy. Aryadeva, the celebrated student of Nagarjuna, had a scathing attack on Samkhya and Vaishesikas in his magnum opus, Satasastra(Some regards Nagarjuna as the Author of the text). Logic has a prominent place in Buddhist Philosophy. The real founders of medieval logic Buddhists. Dinnaga is considered to be the first systematic author of Buddhist logic. In Buddhism, cause or Hetu is of supreme importance. Dignaga had written a treatise on the importance of Hetu. Thus under the aegis of Mahayana Buddhism extant epistemological topics are revamped and they are taught at Nalanda University. It is important to have a survey on topics taught at Nalanda. The university had a wide array of subjects and was exhaustive as well. Before he seeks admission to the university, he ought to be well adept in Vedas, Nyaya, Samkhya and other knowledge systems. Travelogues of Hiuen -Tsiang and I -Tsing informs us on the multidisciplinary curriculum at the University. The curriculum of Nalanda was exhaustive and embraced many of the subjects of pre-Nalanda times(Sankalia,1934 p.67). Of various subjects, certain topics deserve mention. They are compulsorily taught at the university. It has been already mentioned that Nalanda University embraced Mahayana Buddhism. In this ambit, it is pertinent to mention the significance of Theology. Theology is attributed to science for it is the scientific study of God. In western conception, the sole purpose of theology is to place reason above emotion. There is reason to believe in something. Likewise, Mahayana Buddhism professed the belief in Ideas and at the same time Nihilism. Hence, there are two cardinal tenets of Mahayana Buddhism viz; 'Sunyavada' and 'Vijanavada'. It is fascinating to understand that both schools refuted the existence of reality. As to Sunyavada, it denies the existence of an object for everything evolves, subject to change. This is espoused by Nagarjuna and hence regarded as the kernel element of the Mahayana. By contrast, Hinayana Buddhism, grappled with the notion of existence which is explained in philosophy called 'Sravakayana'. The latter(Vijanavada) teaches the significance of Idealism. These bring us to the teaching of Dharmapala, a venerated scholar at the Nalanda University. Dharmapala expounded on the theory of 'Sky-Flower'. The Sky- Flower conception is neither a Nihilist concept nor an idealist notion. The theory describes in the following manner: It is mentioned in the surangamasutra, a treatise on Mahayana teachings, penned by Dharmapala. The work was later translated into Chinese around 705 AD. Likewise, many works of Nagarjuna are translated into Chinese. The Sanskrit versions of the Mahayana treatise are scant. It is evident from the Sky- Flower doctrine that it runs down the reality. This led us to believe in the Void otherwise known as Sunyata. It may be presumed from the doctrine that it subscribes to idealism. Nonetheless, as an Idea exists, God exists. Furthermore, the predominance of the idea gives rise to religion and worship. It rejects Hinayana and considers them as Heretics, so as the Hinayana as well. They are at odds in so far as much verbal spat happens between them. The Mahayana has a different conception of salvation. In their opinion, they asserted that Nirvana is meant for all. It is indeed a paradigm shift from the individualism of Hinayana Buddhism. They deprecated Hinayana Buddhism as pessimistic and requires strenuous meditation to attain nirvana. This approach is seen in Sthiramati's 'Mahayanabhidharmasamyukta-Sangiti-sastra wherein he condemns Hinayana as lower, debased while Mahayana Buddhism suffices pleasure for all beings, wealth and fortune. Another important canon of Mahayana Theology is 'Siksha- Samuccaya' of Santideva. In this particular piece of work, he argued that Hinayana practices are indeed dull and are of no use. True enlightenment comes from Mahayana Buddhism. He adduced that worldly pronouncement never shows us a purpose. This is a far cry from the teachings of Buddha. Mindfulness and devotion are requisites to attain success He opined that enlightenment is achieved by the fixation on one's faith. One ought to have unflagging energy and mindfulness so that one can train to perfection Tibetan rendering of Nagarjuna after "Nagarjuna (left), Buton Rinpoche (right), Folio from a Dharani (Protective or Empowering Spells) LACMA M.81.9.1" by Fæ is licensed under CC BY 2.0 Another subject that was endorsed at the Nalanda University is Logic. In the Buddhist Knowledge matrix, it is called Hetu by name. Hetu is the science of reasoning and cause. Sometimes, it is known as the Middle- Term. The inference has various elements viz; The major, Minor and Hetu. Hetu is central to the proposition. Logic is inevitable for disputing and refuting fact and ultimately, identifying the truth. Students at Nalanda use logic in exegetics and debates related to philosophy. Various philosophies viz; the Samkhya, vaishesikas and Nyaya are indeed connected to logic. One can accept, validate or turn down the philosophy with help of logic. It is imperative to review the contribution of Dinnaga otherwise known as Dignaga to logic. Buddhist logic which is apparently distinct from Nyaya denies upanayana and Anumana(Inference) it accepts the suzerainty of the Middle-Term. Another significant fact is the nature of logic. Dinnaga's conception of logic is stemmed from the notion of platonic idealism. This is best expressed in the following way: "Sarvoyam anumananumeyavyavaharo buddhyarudhenaiva dharma-dharmibhavena na bahisadasattvam apksate" Another logician who made considerable improvement in Hetu is Dharmakirti. He advanced Trairupya theory of Inference and set out certain principles concerning the middle term. He said that the middle- term has to abide by the minor term. It should be corroborated with the Major term if the major term is similar to the idea of the middle -term and lastly, under heterogeneous conditions, the Major-term and minor term never go hand-in-hand. Also, he stated that the middle term is of three kinds viz: Identity, effect and Non-perception. With help of these, a conclusion is arrived at. The study Logic especially Hetuvidya helps the student to critique, refute and espouse epistemological theories. Dignaga, also known as Dinnaga accorded importance to the middle- term. He espoused Trairupia The students of the Nalanda university honed their skills at critique. Moreover, the university is known for producing vast literature comprising philosophical theories. Philosophies postulated by various philosophers were compiled and these works constitute the Encyclopedia. One of the prominent corpora of such work is the Thattvasangraha, compiled by Santarakshita. Panjika the commentary on Thattvasangraha, was penned by his student Kamalasila. Santarakshita is a famed critic as well. He refuted popular philosophies of the time and asserted his opinion. One of the prominent critiques is his take on sathyakaryavada which refutes the Samkhya philosophy wherein he asserts that the object is non-existent. The Samkhya asserted that effect is existent in the cause. Hence it's predetermined. While Santarakshita on the other hand refutes by saying that if something is non-existent how could it produce something new. For explanation, he cited the example of milk and curd. Curd is the effect whereas Milk is the cause. Assume that curd is absent in the milk, how can milk be produced? To Buddhists, denial of reality is important. Only ideas persist. Astronomy needs an honourable mention. Accounts of Hiuen-Tsiang and his biographer, I-Tsing inform us about the existence of an Astronomical observatory that could have a water -clock which gave accurate time for Magadha. The process of admission to Nalanda is indeed a tedious one. Before the entrance, he ought to have a piece of requisite knowledge on Grammar and other philosophical topics. For this purpose, Gatekeepers were appointed. They are men of wisdom and possess incredible knowledge. The examination is in the form of discussions where the gatekeeper poses questions to the student. Those questions were difficult to answer. Only a few students overcame such puzzling questions. This system of entrance examination was held out to foreigners. Students of the Buddhist faith otherwise known as Bhikkhus were exempted, for they completed their formal education at Nalanda. The non-Buddhist students were known as Brahmacarin while Buddhist students were called Bhikkhus. Upon their entrance, especially students who hailed from foreign lands, officials of the Nalanda University welcomed them with much grandeur. Hiuen-Tsiang, in his account, said that he was accompanied by the learned men of Nalanda upon his arrival. The chief purpose of education is the acquisition of knowledge. By contrast, Modern Education prepares students to live by the pittance of vocation. Students in the ancient age on the other hand wanted to know the actual knowledge which is metaphysical. For Buddhists, the attainment of Nirvana is essential likewise, Hindus ultimately seek Brahma. In the nascent stages, these objectives persisted but gradually faded and were substituted by emoluments and positions chiefly pecuniary in nature. How did the student of Nalanda subsist? During their sojourn at Nalanda, they have to develop certain habits. Firstly, they ought to be subservient to the teachers. They accompanied teachers in alms, thereby receiving food and provisions for their subsistence. Moreover, they have to pay for the food provided by the households of hundred villages that come under the periphery of Nalanda. Furthermore, they perform household activities for their masters. It is pertinent to note the student-teacher relationship. It symbolizes servility to each other. Buddha has precisely laid down the duties of the student and his Master. A student is expected to nurse his master, help him in all the ceremonies and practices of the first hours of the day, wash utensils, sweep the vihara, persuade his master to ward off ill faith and helps him to reaffirm his faith and so forth. While the master in turn has to nurse his student. to observe strict conduct towards his pupil and so on. As to the dietary requirements, there are three courses. They eat breakfast after serving meals to their master. Instead of tea, he consumed rice-water. Lunch was served in the forenoon. At this time, he consumed fruits, butter, milk and sweet melons. In the evening around seven o clock, they consumed meals. They lead quite a rigorous life. In terms of their diet, they were not served splendid meals nor provided for free of cost. They have to buy meals for themselves and their master as Buddhism propagates to lead an austere life devoid of material pursuits. Discipline is non-negotiable. Students held high regard for their master. Neither they denied his commands nor he conflicted with him. If any kind of malpractice is found, he will be expelled from the University. This is the highest method of punishment. They never encouraged corporal punishment indeed. Sometimes, students have to make penance for their ill-manner. Rules and regulations on discipline and morality are stipulated in the Vinaya Pitaka. Another worthwhile piece of information concerning campus life is the dress code. The students have to follow a uniform dress code. This applies to Bhikkhus and Hindu students. They put on robes that are wrapped around his waist. The material used to prepare the robe was either silk or wool. Besides this, they put on garments made of linen, cotton and hemp. Three kinds of robes are specified for the students to put on, they are Double waistcloth, a single upper robe and a single undergarment. While pandits wore caps that have pointed peaks and elongated lappets Pious in Demeanour, Buddhist students ' attire © SantiPhotoSS/Shutterstock.com They had complete abstinence from games. Games from the Buddhist perspective is considered to be vice, however, in due course of time, they drifted from absolute puritanism and focused on worldly pleasures. They engaged in gambling as it was prominent in ancient India. Moreover, they find solace in dancing, swordsmanship, carriage driving, guessing at measures, hopping over diagrams and so on. Moreover, they had to refrain from sexual relationships. As Prof Sankalia rightly puts in: "Whenever a women entered a monastery she was not allowed to proceed to the apartments of either priests of students. She could speak to them in a corridor and go away" Thereby in this manner, they kept off carnal desires and preserved spiritual purity. If such desire pops up it is the duty of his ward(student) to convince him and reaffirm his faith. Students had to abstain from such impure thoughts, if he harnesses them they will be expelled from their order. PANDITS: THE EDIFICE OF THE LEARNING CENTRE As the title suggests, scholars otherwise known as pandits are truly the very edifice of the temple of knowledge for, they are well adept in sastras, sutras and other epistemological branches. They have proven their theories, most of the theories are expounded by themselves. Nalanda university is known for its versatile scholars, chiefly Buddhist scholars. Their knowledge, sheer radiance had found profundity in Japan, China, Tibet and Korea. The Tibetan Lamaism owes its origin to Indian Vajrayana Buddhism. A copious amount of Buddhist literature in China is a mere translation of Indian Buddhist literature. For instance, the works of Nagarjuna, the patriarch of Mahayana Buddhism were almost translated into Chinese. Any of his works written in Sanskrit had not been retrieved so far as they are presumed to be lost. Fortunately, a work in Sanskrit attributed to Nagarjuna has been discovered by a Russian many years ago. However, Mahayana Buddhism wielded its influence over India and some regions in South East Asia for a thousand years. Let us take a quick survey of the eminent Pandits of Nalanda University. Many scholars had advanced Mahayana Buddhism. Some are proponents of Tantric Buddhism indeed. We will look at their works and what they have been known for. Firstly, it is imperative to mention Dignaga(Some sources mentions him as either Jina or Dinnaga). He was the master logician who refuted the significance of inference. He asserted that cause or reason is the nub of a statement(Hetu). He espoused Trairupya. He lives around about in AD 400. He penned 100 dialectical sastras and preached Abhidhamma as well. His philosophy is popular in Japan. Chandrakirti who carries the epithet 'The great master of Masters' composed commentaries on Madhyamikavara, a treatise on Mahayana principle. Some sources inform us that the Bappapada Vihara at Vallabhi was built by Sthiramati, one of the venerated pandits of Nalanda. He was well known in Tibet as well. He has penned Sri Buddha kapala Maha Tantra raja tika Abhaya Padhatinama and Sadanga Yoga. It is imperative to note that these sages had been wrangling over topics about Nyaya and vaishesikas for many years. For instance, Dharmakirti, a venerated Buddhist Philosopher from Nalanda has a verbal spat with Shri Shankaracharya where Shankaracharya outsmarts him and affirmed his thesis of Duality. Santarakshita, who had developed his own stamp of intelligence, erected a monastery around 749 AD in Tibet. He was the first Pandit to pay a visit to Tibet at the instance of King Khri-Son-Den-Tsan. Most of the scholars are of aristocratic origin, who later renounced Material ambitions and followed the path of Buddha. Santideva, who is believed to be the son of King Manjuvarman, choose Buddhism over stately life. Legends inform us that he turned to Buddhism at the instance of his mother. He obtained the knowledge of Manjushree. He penned Sutra Samuccaya, Siksa Samuccaya and BodhiCaryavarta. The abbots, who see into the academic affairs, expounded and improvised existing theories. Subhadra, who was the abbot of Nalanda University, was of royal origin. He was the son of a certain king in East- India. He earned the title " Pater Familias" of the Buddhist community, who is the eldest monk at the University. He had penned Arya Buddha Bhumi Vyakhyana. Hiuen -Tsiang, the Chinese traveller and a student at Nalanda, sojourned during the tenure of Silabhadra who recommended Jayasena to teach Hiuen -Tsiang Yoga. Tibet is so thankful to Padmasambhava, a Nalanda Buddhist, who founded Lamaism in Tibet, hailed from the country Udyana, which is purported to be the state of Odisha in India. He was the son Indrabodhi, the King of Udyana. His strict adherence to the Yogacara school made him famous in Tibet. Besides them, some pandits at Nalanda need honourable mention. Candrogomin( Pronounced as Chandragomin). He is one of the advocates of Tantrism. He had written over sixty books in Sanskrit. Simhanada Sadhana, Mahakaranika stotra, Abhichara Karman(Abhichara Karman) and Rakshachakra are his major works. Buddha Kirti and Viradeva were the last great scholars of Nalanda University. On the whole, these Pandits believed in the maxim: 'Honor where Honor is due. Ritualism Nalanda University, the Centre of Mahayana Buddhism, gives utmost importance to rituals. Unlike Hinayana, the furtherance of Madhyamikarika brings forth celestial gods and Bodhisattvas. They are to be worshipped by the students. They should propitiate the images of god. I-Tsing, the biographer of Hien-Tsiang gives us a piece of information as to ritualism at the University. He talks about Public rite which is performed by the residents in the presence of a priest. In the morning the mendicants should take a dip in the water after that the holy image was venerated by anointing with scent and offering flowers at the image. In the evening, they performed sandhyavandana, where they assembled before the lion-Throne(Simhasana), where the sutra- reciter reads the sutra in three parts they are Part 1, Part 2 and part 3. Part 1 comprises ten slokas of hymns in praise of three honourable ones. Part 2 is the selection from some scriptures consisting of the words of Lord Buddha and Part 3 is the chanting of more than ten slokas that express the wish to bring one's good merit to maturity. In the end, the priests exclaimed Subhashita! This is similar to the homely of Modern Christian rites. Prof HD Sankalia has given a classification as to the images propitiated by the residents of Nalanda university. They are classified into three parts viz: Early Mahayana. Tantric Mahayana and Hindu Pantheon. The Bronze images of Buddha, Maitreya ( Future Buddha), Avalokitesvara, Bodhisattvas and Manjushree- The Buddhist god of wisdom and Samantabhadra are subsumed under Early Mahayana. While Hariti and Tara were goddesses of early Mahayana Buddhism. When it comes to Tantric Buddhism following Gods were worshipped: Dhyani Buddha. Trailokavijaya, Jambhala, Marici, Yamantaka and Vajrasarada. The Hindu pantheons were built by kings. They worshipped Lord Vishnu, Saraswati, Ganga, Lord Siva and Parvati. It is worth noting that these gods were represented by different moods and places in different postures. Sometimes they depict mudras as well. For instance, the right hand of the bronze figure of Buddha is raised in Abhayamudra, while Maitreya is depicted as a boon giver. Figures of animals, the staff which is held by Gods and so on were well depicted. The Glory Withered Away. The glory of this temple of knowledge lasted for a thousand years. The destruction of this magnificent University is reminiscent of the prophecy of the soothsayer a thousand years ago. The blood of the snake was spilt in the soil while building the Monastery by Sakraditya. There is a various reason for the downfall of the Nalanda University they can be classified in two: extraneous and Inherent. While there are Inherent factors that weakened Buddhism. Buddhism is not to be perceived as a religion, it is a path to Nirvana for he had to ward off worldly pleasure. It is geared towards Maxim: 'Sarvam Dukkham, Sarvam anityam, Sarvam anatmyam' which reflects the impermanence of the world. Gradually in the opening centuries of the Christian era(AD), Buddhism was revived. It was subjected to changes on material purpose. Buddhism, hitherto the age of Nagarjuna was not popular en masse as it emphasizes self-denial and undergoes extreme rather onerous processes to attain Buddhahood(Nirvana). To keep Buddhism from waning, Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva espoused the middle path. But, the people continues to be content, finally, Buddhism was too much seeped into rituals and turned to Tantric ceremonies, Idolatry worship which was far cry from a Puritan form of Buddhism. The Buddhist monks became wealthy and lived well hence it's lost their moral prestige. Going by extraneous causes, the University was subjected to attack twice. In the sixth century AD, Nalanda was attacked by Mihirakula, the leader of Huns. Later, the University has been revived and after many years, around 1206 AD, the Turkic military leader, Bhaktiyar Khilji, made inroads to Nalanda, mercilessly killed monks and turned the place into dust. The schism in Buddhism added severity to the fragility of the system. These factors had weakened the edifice of Buddhism. Hence the glory of Buddhism withered away so as the glory of Nalanda University. Nevertheless, it is the harbinger of ancient wisdom and primordial truth. Modern universities cannot hold a candle to the versatility of the Nalanda university

There had been a reminiscence of ancient glory and wisdom as we glance at the impoverished states of Africa. The past of this massive continent was shrouded in mystery. Researches into monuments, script and culture bring forth demystified truth. The geopolitical matrix of the land hints at her glorious past. It is imperative to bring to our attention the significance of geography in marking the birth of civilisation. Nature, one of the creations of God has reformed us greatly. Civilisations of the world owe to the bountiful nature. As curious enthusiasts of History, a transition from simple to complex is visible. From farming to advanced science, civilization magnifies its elements. From civilisation, governance, religion and wealth flourish. African nations in the past have a rich heritage to speak about. Until the fifteenth century, except Egypt and other states of North Africa, Interior regions were not explored. Hence, we received scant pieces of evidence on African civilisation. Whereas, The Egyptian civilisation belongs to the Mediterranean culture but they are not "un African" for there are Africans who laboured assiduously for building powerful empires. They are remarkably ace in science during the heydays of Egyptian civilization adaptive to changes and had better polity which is way advanced than the westerners. It has been believed that the withering away of Egyptian civilisation and foreign intrusions caused scientific achievements to perish. But in the polity, they fared well. Cheikh Anti Diop(1923-1986), a Segelase Historian puts it: " I n the fifteenth century, when European set up their trading posts in West Africa, the political organisation of of the African states was superior. Constitutional monarchies with a people's council on which various social strata were represented. The Prime Minister does things on behalf of the monarch" Henceforth, before the advent of Europeans, African nations had a well-defined polity. He held that Africans were diffused after the fall of ancient Egypt. They were pushed back and to the interior regions developed their own culture and remained isolated for many centuries. During this period, they are more oriented toward the development of their social, political and moral organisation. Despite the boost in the polity, they may have forgotten the science in Dynastic Egyptian days. Somehow, Egyptian culture persists in her adjacent area as well. The legendary Kingdom of Kush is a startling example of this phenomenon. This mysterious kingdom flourished in late antiquity around about 700BC until the opening centuries of the Christian era. There are several allusions and references to the kingdom of Kush in the Holy Bible. Where was this fabled place located? The exact lie of The kingdom of Kush is between the southern part of Egypt and reach towards the northern territory of Sudan. The land is watered by the River Nile and its tributary, River Atbara. Like Egypt, it was splendid in culture religion and wealth. Kush is the province of ancient Egypt in 2000 BC. The Egyptians constructed magnificent temples in the city of Napata where Meroitic, the inhabitants of Kush dwelt. Egyptian civilisation penetrated the land of kush for ages and continued to influence the culture of Kushites. This is evident in their architecture and religion. Egypt and Kush are inseparable. Kush is a replica of Egyptian grandeur. After the withdrawal and downfall of Egyptians owing to domestic crisis and foreign intrusions, Kush, the land south of Upper Egypt became independent. Kashta, the first king of Kushites dared to conquer his former master way back in 700 BC. His campaign was successful and captured Thebes of Upper Egypt. The further campaign was carried out by his son Piankhy who conquered lower Egypt as well. From him on, the Kings of Kush were masters of Upper and Lower Egypt. They wore the double crown signifying the rulers of Egypt and Kush. They carried out the Dynastic lines of ancient Egypt and proclaimed themselves as the twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. But they no longer continued to be the Pharaohs of Egypt. The inroads made by the Assyrians waned their glory. Assyrians raided Egypt twice. In the regnal year of Taharqa son of Painkhy, Assyrians were temporarily ousted. This happened around 671 BC. They resurfaced in the regime of Tanwetamani, the nephew of Taharqa. They ambushed and pushed him back to his homeland Napata, where was to be the capital of Kushites. From the sixth century onwards Kush was ruled from Napata. Napata is located by the fifth cataract of the River Nile. The Lie of the kingdom of Kush. After Toth, Tibor. Nubia and Kush. National Geographic.https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/ Kush also shared a similar lot of Egypt as it depends on the providence of the river Nile. The source of the Nile is in Ethiopia. From the Highlands of Ethiopia, the river drags immense silt to Kush and Egypt making the land more fertile and wealthy as well. The fertility of the land of Kush is immense in Meroe. During the flood, the Nile overflows across the banks of Meroe while she receives plentiful rainfall thereby making the land more fertile. By contrast, Napata is semi- barren land. Owing to this pretext, the royal seat of power was transferred to Meroe. Furthermore, Meroe is the centre of Ironworking. It is imperative to analyse her role in facilitating trade. She is considered to be an entrepot where goods are stored and transited to various parts of Africa and afield. The caravan, upon their arrival in Meroe, follows the river Atbara which lead up to Ethiopian Highlands and finally reach the Indian Ocean. Thus the glory of Meroe flourished across the African continent. Various Luminaries gives us an account of Meroites. Jewish Tradition speaks of young Moses as the lord of the land of Meroe. Shemot or the book of Exodus speaks of Moses as a Military General and the King of Kush for he married the Kushite Queen. This happened long before the Exodus. Therefore, this land appears to be sacred. Strabo gives us an account of Roman Governor Gaius Petronius who assaulted Kushites for they attacked Seyene in his absence. There is scant evidence that throws light on the culture of Kushites. But the dilapidated temples stand by the banks of River Nile or in the sandy abyss of the desert retell the tale of its sonorous past. The carvings on the plastered walls of the temple and that of the Pyramid takes us a stroll down memory lane. However, the temples and crumbling pyramids of Meroe informs us that Kushites were the true African brother of Egypt. But the Greek Ptolemies and Roman intrusion caused a kind of syncretic architecture. The columns and pillars of Kushite temples are inspired by Greek columns. The paintings are conspicuously Meroitic. The temple at Philae is a reminiscence of Hellenistic craft. Sources inform us that the Kushite king, Eragamenes and Ptolemy IV built the temple. The Temple is named Kiosk. The columns of the Kiosk resembles the Greek column(p.40) after Shinnie, Margret. Ancient African Kingdoms. Edward Arnold Publisher Limited, 1965. Besides these, Jewellery, Pottery, Glass, Metalware, tools and weapons and wall paintings in African style had been discovered. The normal house in Meroe is open to a courtyard. Rooms of the house depending on the largeness of the courtyard. The palace has a large verandah as well. The bowl especially the decorated bowl is worth a mention. Most of them are made of Bronze upon which pictures of country life is masterfully depicted. Meroitic pottery is primarily wheel-made. Some of them were decorated and added different types of colours. These types of pottery are known as ochre-coloured pottery. Another kind of pottery was imported from the Roman world. The peculiarity of this pot is that it is decorated in a particular manner where the design of lump of clay is protruded such kind of pottery is called Barbotine pottery. The country life depicted on the Bronze Bowl(p.33) after Shinnie. Margret. Ancient African Kingdoms. Edward Arnold Publisher Limited, 1965. The Egyptian religion had a profound impact on the religion of Kushites. The pyramids were erected due to the belief in life after death. The royal tomb was embellished with articles and ornaments required for transcendental life. During the Egyptian colonization, an Egyptian temple dedicated to Amun-Ra was built on Jebel Barkal which is adjacent to Napata. Meroitic religion came to the fore after the Egyptian departure. They worshipped the Lion- God, which had three heads. He is called Apedemak. Astounding us, this Apedemak could be of Indian origin. Religious syncretism is owed to trade. The trade disseminates ideas across the globe. Stressing on the burial system, like Egyptians Nubians and Kushites built Pyramids that are slightly different from the Great pyramids of Egypt. They are narrow and smaller than the Egyptian pyramids. On the Eastern side of the pyramid, lays a small chapel. Beneath it lies royal tombs. This place is called the Burial chamber. The wall of the Burial chamber was embellished with paintings depicting the Man offering to their God. Earlier the body was placed on the bed but in due course of time, they were placed in the coffin or Sarcophagi. Along with them placed articles such as Jewellery, food items, jars of different Kinds. Even there depiction of Osiris Judging the souls. This has a stark resemblance with the Christian notion of the life after death Apedemak, the Lion- God(p.36), after Shinnie. Margret. Ancient African Kingdoms. Edward Arnold Publisher Limited, 1965. Besides these articles, they made toys of servants of Faience. It is called Shawabtis. It is believed that they ease the burden and serve their master in the Nether world. The royal tombs of Kushites are situated in El Kurra, Jebel Barkal and Nuri. Whereas ordinary people were buried in the earth. Articles like a bow, a child's toy, pots and jewellery were paced by his side. There are iron deposits in Meroe in abundance. They were widely used in the closing centuries before christ. They used Iron chains to bond the captives and also used noted weapons made of Iron. The civilisation persists in few decades of the early Christian era. Their disappearance is Shrouded in Mystery. Probably, they had been driven out by Auxumites, who hailed from Auxum, in 350 AD. They destroyed statues, temples and so forth. Axum Empire stretched from Africa below the land to Kush to the southern fringe of Arabia. Consequently, they fled to Sudan.